more Chapters on this topic:IntroductionTransport Eqs.Spin Proximity/ Spin InjectionSpin DetectionBoltzmann Eqs.Band currentScattering currentMean-free pathCurrent near InterfaceOrdinary Hall effectAnomalous Hall effect, AMR effectSpin-Orbit interactionSpin Hall effectNon-local Spin DetectionLandau -Lifshitz equationExchange interactionsp-d exchange interactionCoercive fieldPerpendicular magnetic anisotropy (PMA)Voltage- controlled magnetism (VCMA effect)All-metal transistorSpin-orbit torque (SO torque)What is a hole?spin polarizationCharge accumulationMgO-based MTJMagneto-opticsSpin vs Orbital momentWhat is the Spin?model comparisonQuestions & AnswersEB nanotechnologyReticle 11
more Chapters on this topic:IntroductionTransport Eqs.Spin Proximity/ Spin InjectionSpin DetectionBoltzmann Eqs.Band currentScattering currentMean-free pathCurrent near InterfaceOrdinary Hall effectAnomalous Hall effect, AMR effectSpin-Orbit interactionSpin Hall effectNon-local Spin DetectionLandau -Lifshitz equationExchange interactionsp-d exchange interactionCoercive fieldPerpendicular magnetic anisotropy (PMA)Voltage- controlled magnetism (VCMA effect)All-metal transistorSpin-orbit torque (SO torque)What is a hole?spin polarizationCharge accumulationMgO-based MTJMagneto-opticsSpin vs Orbital momentWhat is the Spin?model comparisonQuestions & AnswersEB nanotechnologyReticle 11
more Chapters on this topic:IntroductionTransport Eqs.Spin Proximity/ Spin InjectionSpin DetectionBoltzmann Eqs.Band currentScattering currentMean-free pathCurrent near InterfaceOrdinary Hall effectAnomalous Hall effect, AMR effectSpin-Orbit interactionSpin Hall effectNon-local Spin DetectionLandau -Lifshitz equationExchange interactionsp-d exchange interactionCoercive fieldPerpendicular magnetic anisotropy (PMA)Voltage- controlled magnetism (VCMA effect)All-metal transistorSpin-orbit torque (SO torque)What is a hole?spin polarizationCharge accumulationMgO-based MTJMagneto-opticsSpin vs Orbital momentWhat is the Spin?model comparisonQuestions & AnswersEB nanotechnologyReticle 11
more Chapters on this topic:IntroductionTransport Eqs.Spin Proximity/ Spin InjectionSpin DetectionBoltzmann Eqs.Band currentScattering currentMean-free pathCurrent near InterfaceOrdinary Hall effectAnomalous Hall effect, AMR effectSpin-Orbit interactionSpin Hall effectNon-local Spin DetectionLandau -Lifshitz equationExchange interactionsp-d exchange interactionCoercive fieldPerpendicular magnetic anisotropy (PMA)Voltage- controlled magnetism (VCMA effect)All-metal transistorSpin-orbit torque (SO torque)What is a hole?spin polarizationCharge accumulationMgO-based MTJMagneto-opticsSpin vs Orbital momentWhat is the Spin?model comparisonQuestions & AnswersEB nanotechnologyReticle 11
more Chapters on this topic:IntroductionScatteringsSpin-polarized/ unpolarized electronsSpin statisticselectron gas in Magnetic FieldFerromagnetic metalsSpin TorqueSpin-Torque CurrentSpin-Transfer TorqueQuantum Nature of SpinQuestions & Answersmore Chapters on this topic:IntroductionTransport Eqs.Spin Proximity/ Spin InjectionSpin DetectionBoltzmann Eqs.Band currentScattering currentMean-free pathCurrent near InterfaceOrdinary Hall effectAnomalous Hall effect, AMR effectSpin-Orbit interactionSpin Hall effectNon-local Spin DetectionLandau -Lifshitz equationExchange interactionsp-d exchange interactionCoercive fieldPerpendicular magnetic anisotropy (PMA)Voltage- controlled magnetism (VCMA effect)All-metal transistorSpin-orbit torque (SO torque)What is a hole?spin polarizationCharge accumulationMgO-based MTJMagneto-opticsSpin vs Orbital momentWhat is the Spin?model comparisonQuestions & AnswersEB nanotechnologyReticle 11
more Chapters on this topic:IntroductionScatteringsSpin-polarized/ unpolarized electronsSpin statisticselectron gas in Magnetic FieldFerromagnetic metalsSpin TorqueSpin-Torque CurrentSpin-Transfer TorqueQuantum Nature of SpinQuestions & Answersmore Chapters on this topic:IntroductionTransport Eqs.Spin Proximity/ Spin InjectionSpin DetectionBoltzmann Eqs.Band currentScattering currentMean-free pathCurrent near InterfaceOrdinary Hall effectAnomalous Hall effect, AMR effectSpin-Orbit interactionSpin Hall effectNon-local Spin DetectionLandau -Lifshitz equationExchange interactionsp-d exchange interactionCoercive fieldPerpendicular magnetic anisotropy (PMA)Voltage- controlled magnetism (VCMA effect)All-metal transistorSpin-orbit torque (SO torque)What is a hole?spin polarizationCharge accumulationMgO-based MTJMagneto-opticsSpin vs Orbital momentWhat is the Spin?model comparisonQuestions & AnswersEB nanotechnologyReticle 11
more Chapters on this topic:IntroductionTransport Eqs.Spin Proximity/ Spin InjectionSpin DetectionBoltzmann Eqs.Band currentScattering currentMean-free pathCurrent near InterfaceOrdinary Hall effectAnomalous Hall effect, AMR effectSpin-Orbit interactionSpin Hall effectNon-local Spin DetectionLandau -Lifshitz equationExchange interactionsp-d exchange interactionCoercive fieldPerpendicular magnetic anisotropy (PMA)Voltage- controlled magnetism (VCMA effect)All-metal transistorSpin-orbit torque (SO torque)What is a hole?spin polarizationCharge accumulationMgO-based MTJMagneto-opticsSpin vs Orbital momentWhat is the Spin?model comparisonQuestions & AnswersEB nanotechnologyReticle 11
more Chapters on this topic:IntroductionTransport Eqs.Spin Proximity/ Spin InjectionSpin DetectionBoltzmann Eqs.Band currentScattering currentMean-free pathCurrent near InterfaceOrdinary Hall effectAnomalous Hall effect, AMR effectSpin-Orbit interactionSpin Hall effectNon-local Spin DetectionLandau -Lifshitz equationExchange interactionsp-d exchange interactionCoercive fieldPerpendicular magnetic anisotropy (PMA)Voltage- controlled magnetism (VCMA effect)All-metal transistorSpin-orbit torque (SO torque)What is a hole?spin polarizationCharge accumulationMgO-based MTJMagneto-opticsSpin vs Orbital momentWhat is the Spin?model comparisonQuestions & AnswersEB nanotechnologyReticle 11
more Chapters on this topic:IntroductionTransport Eqs.Spin Proximity/ Spin InjectionSpin DetectionBoltzmann Eqs.Band currentScattering currentMean-free pathCurrent near InterfaceOrdinary Hall effectAnomalous Hall effect, AMR effectSpin-Orbit interactionSpin Hall effectNon-local Spin DetectionLandau -Lifshitz equationExchange interactionsp-d exchange interactionCoercive fieldPerpendicular magnetic anisotropy (PMA)Voltage- controlled magnetism (VCMA effect)All-metal transistorSpin-orbit torque (SO torque)What is a hole?spin polarizationCharge accumulationMgO-based MTJMagneto-opticsSpin vs Orbital momentWhat is the Spin?model comparisonQuestions & AnswersEB nanotechnologyReticle 11
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Spin-Orbit Interaction
Spin and Charge TransportRelativistic origin of the spin-orbit interactionAn electron moving in an electrical field experiences an effective magnetic field, which acts on the electron magnetic moment (spin). The interaction of the electron magnetic moment with the effective magnetic field is called the spin-orbit interaction.There are two distinguished classes of effects, which are originated from the spin-orbit interaction:(class 1): Enhancement of external magnetic field. Effects: (1) perpendicular magnetic anisotropy; (2) magnetostriction; (3) g-factor; (4) fine structure. Localized electrons and atoms of atomic gas experience this class of effects. Time-inverse symmetry is broken by the external magnetic field.(class 2) Creation of spin polarization by an electrical current. Effects: (1) Spin Hall effect; (2) Inverse Spin Hall effect; (3) Spin relaxation. Conduction electrons experience this class of effects. Time-inverse symmetry is broken by the electrical current.
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Relativistic origin of the Spin-Orbit Interaction |
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Fig.3 An object (e.g. an electron) shown in red is moving in a static electric field. In the coordinate system moving together with the object, the static electric field is relativistically transformed into the effective electric field Eeff and the effective magnetic field Heff In case if the particle has a magnetic moment (spin), there will be a spin precession around the effective magnetic field. |
According to the Theory of The Relativity the electric and magnetic field mutually transformed into each other depending on the speed of an observer. For example, if in a coordinate system of static observer there is only a magnetic field, a movable observer will experience this field as both an electrical field and a magnetic field.
A particle moving in a static magnetic field experiences an effective electric field. The effective electrical field acts on the particle charge (the Lorentz force, Hall effect) and forces the particle to move along this field.
A particle moving in a static electrical field experiences an effective magnetic field. The effective magnetic field acts on the particle magnetic moment (spin-orbit interaction) and causes the precession of the magnetic moment around the direction of the effective magnetic field.
The electromagnet field is a relativistic object and it is the Lorentz transformation rules as
where Estatic, Hstatic are the electric and magnetic field in the static coordinate system (reference frame) and Emove, Hmove are the electric and magnetic field in the coordinate system, which moves with a constant speed v.
As a result, an electron, which moves in a static magnetic field Hstatic, experience in own reference frame an effective electrical field EHall , which is called the Hall field (Hall voltage). Similarly, when an electron moves in a static electrical field Estatic, it experience in own reference frame an effective magnetic field HSO , which is called the effective spin-orbit magnetic field
For example, when an electron moves in the x-direction
in
The Lorentz force is a tween effect with the effect of the spin-orbit interaction | ||||
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in this case and
The Hall field can be calculated as
The spin-orbit magnetic field can be calculated as
Note: An electron should have velocity component perpendicular to a static electrical field Estatic or a static magnetic field Hstatic in order to experience the magnetic field HSO of spin-orbit interaction or the Hall field EHall
the Hall effect ==== results in ====> an effective electrical field
the Spin-Orbit interaction ===results in=====> an effective magnetic field
The trajectory of an electron may be very different. There are many cases when an electron moves perpendicularly to an electrical field. For example, when the electron is orbiting around a nucleus. Another example, an electron current along an interface. Usually, there is an electrical field perpendicularly to the interface, but still the electron may move along the interface (See below)
(It is important): There is only one cause of spin-orbit interaction. It is the magnetic field c of spin-orbit interaction. All other causes are consequences of HSO. For example, the electron spin align itself along HSO. It change electron energy, which can be defined as an energy of the spin-orbit interaction ESO. However, an additional external magnetic field Hext is applied, the electron spin is aligned along total magnetic field HSO+ Hext and ESO has no physical meaning. Therefore, there is only one parameter, which is fully characterizes and describes the spin-orbit interaction. It is HSO.
it is correct. Usually, the HSO is very small except cases when the electrical field Estatic is huge. It is the case in close proximity to the nucleus. There the electrical field increase as 1/r, where r is the distance to the nucleus. The nucleus is almost "point-like" object, therefore the electrical field Estatic is huge in close proximity of the nucleus. It makes a large HSO
In close vicinity of a nucleus an electron experiences a very strong electrical field of the nucleus. However, this field is very symmetric and the electron experience the opposite signs of the spin-orbit interaction on its path around nucleus. Therefore, the spin-orbit interaction cancels itself and the electron experience no spin-orbit interaction. An externally -applied electrical field or magnetic field or stress field may break the symmetry and the the electron starts to experience very strong effective magnetic field of the spin-orbit interaction. For example, when only only 100 Oe of external magnetic field is applied, an electron may experience an effective magnetic field of 10 000 Oe due to the spin-orbit interaction.
(Why the spin?)
Only one property of an electron, with which the magnetic field of the spin-orbit interaction Hso can interact, is the electron spin. The magnetic field of the spin-orbit interaction does not interact with the electron orbital moment. Only magnetic property of an electron, which remains and with which Hso can interact, is the electron spin.
(Why the orbital?)
The magnetic field of the spin-orbit interaction Hso is only substantial for orbital movement of an electron in a very strong electrical field of an atomic nucleus. In the case of an atomic nucleus, there is a magnetic field of the spin-orbit interaction only in case of an asymmetrical orbital ( a non-symmetrical orbital). The non-symmetrical orbital has a non-zero orbital moment. The larger the non-symmetry of the orbital is, the larger the magnetic field of the spin-orbit interaction and ,at the same time, the larger the orbital moment becomes. Therefore, there is such an indirect relation between Hso and the orbital moment. The only reason for this relation is that both quantities the orbital moment and the magnetic field of the spin-orbit interaction are proportional to the degree of the orbital asymmetry.
Even in absence of the orbital moment, an electron may experience a substantial spin-orbit interaction. For example, when electron is moving at a relativistic object in the space in a proximity of an electrically-charged object.
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Fig. 5. An imaginary case what would happen if the Sun were charged. In this case the magnetic moment of the Earth would be aligned in respect to the polarity of the Sun charge. The red arrow shows direction of the magnetic moment of the Earth. The blue arrow shows the direction of the effective magnetic field HSO due to the effect of the spin-orbit interaction, which is induced by the electrical field due to the Sun charge. When the the polarity of the charge is reversed, the direction of the effective magnetic field is reversed as well. It follows by the precession of the magnetic moment of the Earth around the effective field until it aligns itself to be antiparallel in respect to the SO magnetic field HSO. |
For example, Figure 5 shows an imaginary case what would happen if the Sun were charged. In this case the magnetic moment of the Earth would interact with the effective magnetic field HSO of the spin-orbital interaction induced by this charge. The magnetic moment of the Earth would be aligned accordingly as it is shown in Fig.5.
A. It is not correct statement. The spin-orbit interaction is fully relativistic effect. It is absolutely not a quantum mechanical effect, even though many quantum- mechanical effects are include the features of the spin- orbit interaction.
In short:
(1) The spin-orbit interaction is a relativistic effect and can be fully described by relativistic equations.
(2) The Dirac is a relativistic quantum-mechanical equation. The Dirac equation describes both the relativistic transformation of the electromagnetic field and the relativistic transformation of the quantum field of an electron. Calculations of the spin-orbit interaction from the Dirac equation are most precise. (See SO and Dirac equation here)
(3) The Schrödinger equation and Pauli equation, both describe the spin-orbit interaction. Both equations describe the relativistic transformation of the electromagnetic field, but do not describe the relativistic transformation of the quantum field of an electron. However, using some corrected constants and parameters it is possible to describe the SO interaction by Schrödinger equation and Pauli equations fully precise and fully identical to description by the Dirac equation.
Energy of spin- orbit interaction |
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Fig.6 There is a precession of electron spin S around magnetic field HSO of spin-orbit interaction until it aligns parallel to HSO. After the electron spin is aligned, the energy of SO interaction becomes |
click on image to enlarge it |
The spin-orbit interaction manifests itself only by the SO magnetic field HSO. The HSO is a very normal magnetic field (almost). There is a precession of electron spin S around magnetic field HSO of spin-orbit interaction until it aligns parallel to HSO. After the electron spin is aligned, the energy of SO interaction becomes
μB is the Bohr magneton
It is because of relativistic origin of both the SO interaction and the Lorentz force.
The HSO interacts only with the spin magnetic moment, but not with the orbital magnetic moment or the total magnetic moment
The HSO is the magnetic field of the relativistic origin. It appears only the coordinate system, which moves together with the electron (See here). The Lorentz force is of the relativistic origin as well and it is originated from the electrical field, which the electron experiences when moves in a magnetic field. In the moving coordinate system, where the electron experiences HSO , the electron does not move and therefore has no experience any Lorentz force
The interaction of the orbital moment with a magnetic field is due to the Lorentz force
Note: The total magnetic moment is a quantum- mechanical sum of the orbital magnetic moment and the spin-magnetic moment. The role holds for both cases when spin is align along HSO (along the orbital moment) and when the there is a spin precession around HSO.
Electron spin is aligned along due the spin precession damping (See Fig.6). The spin precession damping is a complex mechanism (See here), which involves an external particle with a non-zero spin (e.g. a photon, a magnon). It could take a relatively a long until full alignment of electron spin along HSO.
There are many such cases. E.g. the conduction electrons in a metal. The size of a conduction electrons are relatively large. There are many conduction electrons, which simultaneously overlap each other. For this reason, the scattering between quantum states of conduction electrons are very frequent. The time between two consequent scatterings a conduction electron is very short (~ 1 ps). It is far not enough to finish even oven precession period and definitely it is not enough for the electron spin to align along HSO.
Except of a few weak effects, all spin-orbital effects are induced by an electrical field of an atomic nucleus and the election movement (rotation) in the close proximity of the nucleus !!
Magnitude of the spin-interaction in is small when an conduction electron moves in any realistic extrinsic or intrinsic electrical field in a solid!!!.
a moderate electrical field + a moderate electron speed => result: a very small spin-orbit interaction
Except for an electron, which moves in a close vicinity of an atomic nucleus
a very strong electrical field + a moderate electron speed => result: a strong spin-orbit interaction
Example 1.
Even in the of the highest-possible electron speed in solid and largest-possible applied electrical field, the effective magnetic field of the spin-orbit interaction is small!!
Electron Speed: Saturation Velocity :1E7 m/s (GaAs Si )
It is maximum drift speed of electrons in a solid.
The applied voltage: Breakdown voltage: 5E5 V/cm(GaAs, Si)
It is maximum voltage, which could be applied to a semiconductor (a oxide). For higher voltage the avalanche breakdown occurs.
Result:
The effective magnetic field of the spin-orbit interaction is only 0.5 Gauss
It is too small!!! For example, Earth's magnetic field at at the Earth's surface ranges from 0.25-0.65 Gauss.
When the orbital of an electron is center-symmetrical, the orbital moment and spin-orbit interaction can be zero despite of electron rotation around nucleus |
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s- orbit of an atom |
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Both representation of the electron orbital are equivalent. |
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Fig.8. s-orbital. An electron rotates around a nucleus in spherical orbital. Since at the same time the electron rotates in clockwise and anti clockwise directions, the spin-orbit interaction for opposite rotations cancels each other and the electron does not experience the spin-orbit interaction. | ||||||
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Example 2.
Electron Speed: linear speed of electron rotating around atom : ~2.1E6 m/s
The applied voltage:Coulomb Electrical Field in H atom at 1st orbital (r=0.053 nm) 5.1E9 V/cm
Result:
It is rather large!!!. Such large magnetic field can only be obtained by a superconducting magnet.
A. Actually, not. Even though there are common tendencies between the spin-orbital interaction and the orbital moment. E.g. When orbital moment is zero, the SO interaction is zero. When orbital moment changes its sign, the SO interaction changes its sign as well.
Even though the "orbital" is a part of name of the SO interaction, the relation between orbital moment and the HSO is complex and not straightforward.
The spin-orbit interaction:
for centrosymmetric electrical field of a nucleus:
where qnucleus is the nucleus charge.
HSO is proportional to ~1/r. As a result, the main contribution to HSO is from region in proximity of the nucleus. The symmetry of electron distribution function and electron rotation symmetry in close vicinity of the nucleus mainly contribute to HSO
The orbital moment:
or in quantum-mechanical representation
L is proportional to ~r. As a result, both regions, which are close and far from the nucleus, give a substantial contributions to L.
Even though a formal relation between HSO and L is very simple:
The integration over electron distribution gives very different value of HSO and L depending on the symmetry and details of electron wavefunction.
orbital momentum vs rotation symmetry |
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A. It is because, for the spherical orbit an electrons makes an equal number of rotations in two opposite directions. Since for opposite rotation directions the directions of the effective magnetic field of the spin-orbit interaction are opposite, an electron does not experience any spin-orbit interaction.
No, See center and right pictures
The s-orbital can be divided to the sum of two spherical orbital, for which HSO is a no zero and opposite between two orbitals.
A. No, it is not correct. The spin-orbit interaction does not affect an electron of s-orbital for the following reason: An electron is an elementary particle, which could not be divided into the parts (See here). Therefore, it is impossible that the spin of one part of the electron rotates in one direction and the spin of another part rotates in a different direction. A whole electron has only one direction of the spin. In the case when along the length of electron (the mean-free path) or along the electron orbit the magnetic field changes, the spin interact with an average magnetic field. It is important there is always one defined spin direction for one electron.
Orbital rotation of conduction electrons |
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Yellow wavy ellipse shows the wave function of the conduction electron. Blue circle show the direction of rotation of the conduction electron around each atomic nucleus (dark spheres).Electrical field of each nucleus induces the magnetic field interaction HSO. The electron experiences the accumulative strong HSO. Even though the electrons moves along stationary nuclei,accumulative HSO remains constant. |
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The size of a conduction electron (size of its wave function) is relatively large. A conduction electron can cover simultaneously hundreds or thousands of nuclei. | ||||
camera moves with the electron | ||||
click on image to enlarge it |
quenched and unquenched orbital moments (See details here))
unquenched orbital: orbital moment can be freely rotated in any direction. E.g. orbital moment can align alone an external magnetic field.
quenched orbital: orbital moment cannot be freely rotated. Its orbital direction either is fixed or its orbital momentum is zero.
An unique spacial electron distribution each orbital moment. When the orbital moment is changed, the orbital spatial distribution is changed as well. However, the bonding of atom in a solid fixes the spacial electron distribution. The orbital moment of bonding electrons cannot be rotated. Otherwise, the bonding would be destroyed. As a result, the total orbital momentum of bonding electrons is zero.
orbital moment of electrons in a metal (common case)
localized electrons: the orbital moment is zero and orbital is quenched
conduction electrons: the orbital moment is a non-zero and orbital can be either quenched or unquenched
SO interaction. Type 1. Example: the Spin Hall effect |
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Fig.2 (left) 2D scan of Kerr rotation angle θKerr in GaAs 30-um-wide wire. θKerr is proportional to number of spin-polarized electrons nS , when an electrical current flows through the wire. T=30 K; (right) top- view optical optical image of same GaAs wire |
The red and blue regions at wire side are regions of spin accumulation. Red and blue colors corresponds to spin-up and spin-down directions of spin accumulation. White color corresponds to regions without any spin accumulation. |
Effect Origin 2:: There is a Schottky barrier at each edge of the GaAs wire and therefore an electrical field perpendicularly to the edge. Since an electrical current flows in the wire perpendicularly to that electrical field, the electrons experience the SO magnetic field HSO , which creates the spin accumulation. The direction of the electrical field is opposite on opposite sides. As a result, the polarity of and spin accumulation is opposite on opposite sides. |
Y. K. Kato, R. C. Myers, A. C. Gossard, D. D. Awschalom, "Observation of the Spin Hall Effect in Semiconductors". Science 306, 1910-1913 (2004) |
click on image to enlarge it. See details here |
(type 1: weak SO) SO interaction induced by an external electrical field , which is perpendicular to electron current
(source of electrical field): electrical field at interface; electrical field of a Schottky barrier:
(source of breaking of time-inverse symmetry): an electrical current flowing along interface and perpendicularly to the interface electrical field:
(induced effects): Spin Hall effect & Inverse Spin Hall effect (weak contributions)
(type 2: strong SO) Enhancement of an external magnetic field
(source of electrical field): centrosymmetric electrical field of atomic nucleus
(source of breaking of time-inverse symmetry): an external magnetic field
(induced effects): Perpendicular magnetic anisotropy (PMA), voltage-controlled magnetic anisotropy (VCMA)
(type 3: moderate SO) creation of spin polarization by an electrical current
(source of electrical field): centrosymmetric electrical field of atomic nucleus
(source of breaking of time-inverse symmetry): an electrical current
(induced effects):Spin Hall effect & Inverse Spin Hall effect (main contributions), Spin-Orbit Torque
(type 1: weak SO) SO interaction induced by an external electrical field , which is perpendicular to current
(source of electrical field): electrical field at interface; electrical field of a Schottky barrier:
(source of breaking of time-inverse symmetry): an electrical current flowing along interface and perpendicularly to the interface electrical field:
(induced effects): Spin Hall effect & Inverse Spin Hall effect (weak contribution)
Explanation of effect: An electrical field, which exists at interface, or an external electrical field is applied (exists) perpendicularly to the electron current. The conduction electrons are confined in a 2D structure (e.g. a quantum well). Therefore, they do not flow in the perpendicular direction along the perpendicular magnetic field. The geometry of this type of SO effect is nearly the same as the geometry explaining the relativistic origin of the SO interaction, when electrons move perpendicularly
The reasons why the type of SO interaction is small, see here
(type 2: strong SO) Effect of Enhancement of external magnetic field
Enhancement of external magnetic field |
Fig. 14. The external magnetic field Hext induces the effective magnetic field of the spin-orbit interaction HSO, which is is in the same direction as the external magnetic field.. Therefore, the total magnetic field, which the electron experiences, becomes larger. |
note: Magnitude of HSO depends significantly on the direction, in which Hext is applied with orbit to orbital symmetry. |
click on image to enlarge it |
(source of electrical field): centrosymmetric electrical field of atomic nucleus
(source of breaking of time-inverse symmetry): an external magnetic field
(induced effects): Perpendicular magnetic anisotropy (PMA), voltage-controlled magnetic anisotropy (VCMA)
localized electrons experience this type of SO
Explanation of effect:
The type 2 of spin-orbit interaction is induced be an external magnetic field. E.g. in absence of a external magnetic field a localized electron does not experience any HSO. However, when external magnetic field Hext is applied, it induces strong HSO parallel to Hext and the electron experiences a stronger total magnetic field Htotal =Hext+HSO. E.g. when Hext=1 kG is applied, it induces HSO.=5 kG. Therefore, in total electron experience Htotal=6 kG.
Reason why an external magnetic field Hext induces the spin-orbit interaction HSO
(without external magnetic field): The orbital moment of the localized electrons is zero (or unquenched (See details here)). Any 3D orbital can be divided as a sum of two 2D orbitals of CCW and ACW electron rotation. Since the total moment of the localized electrons is zero, the CCW and ACW orbitals are identical. As a result, the electron experience the same but opposite HSO for the CCW and ACW orbitals , therefore in total it experiences no HSO
(with external magnetic field):Since electron rotation in the CCW and ACW orbitals is opposite, the Lorentz force is opposite for CCW and ACW orbitals. As a result, the CCW and ACW orbitals are deformed differently in an external magnetic field, HSO becomes different for CCW and ACW orbitals and in total the electron experiences a non-zero HSO.
Origin of SO interaction of type 2 |
Without external magnetic field, a localized electron does not have any orbital moment. It means the electron rotates in CCW and ACW directions on exactly the same orbital and experiences the same, but opposite HSO. The HSO is induced by the electrical field of nucleus. Therefore, in total the electron experiences no SO, HSO=0. |
Under external magnetic field, CCW orbital becomes slightly closer to nucleus and CCW orbital becomes more distant due to the Lorentz force FLor. As result, HSO becomes different for CCW and ACW orbitals and in total HSO becomes a non-zero |
click on image to enlarge it |
(influence 1) Electron energy is changed. (less important for SO)
The electron energy changes in a magnetic field according to its orbital moment. The orbital moment is aligned along magnetic field minimizing magnetic energy. The energy of s- electrons (orbital moment L=0) does not change. The energy of p-, d-, f- electrons (orbital moment L=1,2,3) changes.
(influence 2) Time- inverse symmetry is broken. (very important for SO)
The magnetic field changes the spacial distribution of an electron orbital, which breaks the time-inverse symmetry for the orbital. The part of electron distribution, which corresponds to the electron rotation in ACW direction with respect to magnetic field, is becomes closer to the nucleus. The part of electron distribution, which corresponds to the electron rotation in CCW direction with respect to magnetic field, is shifted away from the nucleus.
Note: The breaking of the time - inverse symmetry of the orbital does not depend whether the electron energy or electron orbital moment is changed or not. For example, a magnetic field breaks the time- inverse symmetry even for the s-orbital, even though the magnetic field does not change either energy or orbital moment of the s- orbital.
Effects, which are originated from Spin-orbit interaction of type 2:
(type 3: moderate SO) creation of spin polarization by an electrical current
Spin Hall effect due to a non-zero orbital moment of conduction electrons induced by an electrical current J |
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Fig. 3. Distribution of electrons with orbital moment and distribution of HSO. |
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The length of a vector from axis origin to the sphere is proportional to the number of electrons moving in the vector direction. Red arrow shows the direction of electron movement. Blue circle shows the direction of orbital moment. Violet arrow shows direction of HSO induced by the orbital moment. The direction of orbital moment and HSO is fixed to the electron movement direction. | |||||||||
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Each election moving in a different direction experiences magnetic field HSO in a different direction. | |||||||||
When a conduction electron moves along crystal lattice, it simultaneously rotates around each atomic nucleus as it passes it. The electrical field of nucleus induces the magnetic field of spin-orbit interaction. The spin of conduction electrons interacts with HSO. There is a spin precession around HSO and spin precession damping, which aligns spin to HSO. | |||||||||
click on image to enlarge it. See details about this contribution to spin Hall effect here |
(source of electrical field): centrosymmetric electrical field of atomic nucleus
(source of breaking of time-inverse symmetry): an electrical current
(induced effects):Spin Hall effect & Inverse Spin Hall effect (main contribution), Spin-Orbit Torque
Only conduction electrons experience this type of SO
Explanation of the effect:
(effect 1): Spin Hall effect
When electrical current flows in a metallic wire, it generates a spin current flowing perpendicularly to the electrical current
(effect 2): Spin pumping
When electrical current flows in a metallic wire, it creates spin-polarized conduction electrons. As a result, initially spin-unpolarized gas of conduction electrons becomes spin-polarized.
(effect 3): Inverse Spin Hall effect (ISHE)
When a spin-polarized current flows in a metallic wire, it generates a charge current (conventional current)flowing perpendicularly to the spin current.
(effect 4): Spin damping
When the electron gas is spin-polarized, there are spin-polarized conduction electrons, which spins is directed in one direction. When the conduction electron has a non-zero rotational (orbital) moment, it experiences a non-zero HSO and there is a spin precession around HSO. Since the direction of HSO is different for electrons moving in different directions, the spin precession is along different directions for electrons moving in different directions. As a result, the spins of spin-polarized electrons is misaligned from one direction and degree of the spin polarization is reduced.
there are two contributions to current-induced spin-orbit effects:
(contribution 1) band current
(explanation of effect):
(step 1) The conduction electron have a non-zero rotational (orbital) moment,which created magnetic field HSO. There is a spin precession around HSO and the spin is aligning along HSO due to the damping of the spin precession.
(step 2) When there is no electrical current, there are equal numbers of electrons moving in any two opposite directions. Since the rotational (orbital) moment and HSO are equal and opposite for electrons moving in opposite direction, both the total rotational (orbital) moment and total are zero for the electron gas and scattering probabilities are independent on electron movent direction and electron spin
(step 3) When there is an electrical current, the number of conduction electrons moving along current is larger than number of electrons moving in the opposite direction. As a result, the rotational (orbital) moment of electrons moving along current is not fully balanced by the opposite moment of electrons moving in the opposite direction and the total the electron gas experience a non-zero HSO and the electron gas becomes spin-polarized.
(step 4) When there is an electrical current, the scattering probability of spin-up electrons to the left becomes different from the scattering probability to the right. As a result, e.g. the spin-up polarized current flows to the left and the spin-down polarized current flows to the right.
(contribution 2) scattering current
It is a feature of a metal of a low conductivity (See here)
(explanation of effect):
(step 1) There is an electrical field in close vicinity of a defect in a metal and an interface between two metal or at edge of a metal wire. The conduction electrons are screening any electrical field in a metal. However, in close proximity of a defect or interface the electrical field is not fully screened. Especially it is the case of a metal of a low conductivity
(step 2) When a conduction electron moves along the electrical field of the defect or interface, it experience HSO and its spin is aligned along HSO
(step 3) Since direction of the electrical field is opposite from left and right sides
The conduction electrons move simultaneously in the forward direction along lattice and around each atom (nucleus) of the lattice.
Properties distinguish each type of SO interaction
-What is the origin of electrical field?
- Direction of electron movent
- What (an electrical current or an external magnetic field) breaks the time- inverse symmetry.
Spin Hall effect of type 1 |
due to electron movement perpendicularly to electrical field (Schottky- type) at interface |
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Fig. 30 . The electron current in a GaAs stripe. The view point moves together with electrons. Because of the charge depletion at the GaAs-oxide boundary, there is an electrical filed E perpendicular to the boundary (shown as the green arrows). The electrical field E induces the effective magnetic field HSO of the spin-orbit interaction (red arrows). The direction of the effective magnetic field is opposite at the opposite sides of the GaAs strip. Spins of conduction electrons is aligning along HSO. As a result, the conduction electrons becomes spin- polarized. The direction of the spin- polarization is along HSO |
When the conduction electrons moved near the edge of the GaAs strip, the spins precess around the magnetic field HSO. Because the damping of the spin precession the spins are aligned along the effective magnetic field of the spin-orbit interaction. |
The electrical field, HSO and spin polarization exponentially decays from the interface deep into the wire. There are no E, HSO and spin polarization at the center of the wire. |
Due to the Schottky barrier at the boundary, the electrons are depleted (accumulated) at the boundary region creating the electrical field E. |
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(Origin): It is originated by an electrical current flowing in quantum well (QW) or in the vicinity of the interface.
An external magnetic field is not required to create the weak SO effect.
(Source of electrical field (field is weak)): (1) electrical field of charge accumulation at interface (Schottky type or due to a difference of work functions of materials at sides of the interface). (2) electrical field of defects
(Reason why an electron moves perpendicularly to electrical field) Electrical current in the perpendicular direction is blocked by the interface or 2D confinement.
(Source of electron movement (movement is slow)): electron current along a 2D QW or along an interface
(Symmetry): (1)Polarity of HSO is reversed when is the electrical current is reversed. (2) Asymmetrical structure perpendicularly to current direction is often required. Otherwise, SO interaction compensate itself at two opposite interfaces and HSO becomes zero.
Effects, originated by "Weak- type" SO:
(1) Spin Hall effect (weak contribution)
(2) Anomalous Hall effect (weak contribution)
(3) Effect of Anomalous Magneto - Resistance (AMR) (weak contribution)
(4) Rashba effect (weak contribution)
(Origin): It is originated from orbital movement of electron, when the orbital moment of electron is a non-zero.
(Origin of breaking of time-inverse symmetry): orbital alignment (spontaneous, local, by a magnetic field etc.)
(Source of electrical field (field is strong)): electrical field of the nucleus
(Reason why an electron moves perpendicularly to electrical field): Orbital movements,
(Source of electron movement (movement is fast)): Orbital movements
(Symmetry): (1) HSO is linearly proportional to the orbital moment of electron. (2)
Effects, originated by "non- zero orbital" SO:
(1) Fine structure
(Origin): It is originated by an electrical field of nucleus due to the orbital rotation of an electron around nucleus and an external magnetic field, which breaks the times-inverse symmetry of the orbital
An external magnetic field is required to create the strong SO effect. Without an external magnetic the effect does not exists!
(Origin of breaking of time-inverse symmetry): external magnetic field
(Source of electrical field (field is strong)): electrical field of the nucleus
.(Reason why an electron moves perpendicularly to electrical field): Orbital movements,
(Source of electron movement (movement is fast)): Orbital movements
(Symmetry): (1) HSO is linearly proportional to the external magnetic field. (2)
Effects, originated by "Strong- type" SO:
(1) Perpendicular magnetic anisotropy (PMA)
(Origin): It is originated by an electrical field of nucleus due to the orbital rotation of an electron around nucleus and an electrical current, which breaks the times-inverse symmetry of the orbital
(Origin of breaking of time-inverse symmetry): electrical current
(Source of electrical field (field is strong)): electrical field of the nucleus
(Reason why an electron moves perpendicularly to electrical field): Orbital movements
(Source of electron movement (movement is fast)): Orbital movements
(Symmetry): (1) HSO is linearly proportional to the current (2)
Effects, originated by the "Moderate- type" SO:
(1)
.....
-- Enhancement (magnification) of the applied magnetic field.
Due to the spin-orbit interaction, an electron experiences the effective magnetic field, which is larger than the actual applied magnetic field.
where it is the case: (1) changing of g-factor; (2) perpendicular magnetic anisotropy; (3) magnetostriction
-- Spin-dependent scatterings.
Due to the spin-orbit interaction, the scattering probability for electrons with opposite spins becomes different.
where it is the case: (1) Anomalous Hall effect; (2) Spin Hall effect
-- Spin precession. Spin relaxation.
When electron moves across a strong electrical field, the effective magnetic field of the spin-orbit interaction causes a spin precession.
where it is the case: a electrical current flowing along an interface or a junction.
When an electron may move at different angles, it may cause different directions of the precession, therefore the spin relaxation.
(Effect 1) -g-factor becomes larger than g-factor of an electron in the free space ;
(Effect 2)-The bulk-type Spin Hall effect due to scatterings on non-magnetic and magnetic impurities
(Effect 3)- The interface-type Spin Hall effect due to interface scatterings
(Effect 4)- spin relaxation becomes larger. Especially for delocalized electrons (conduction electrons) of p- symmetry (-d or -f as well)
(Effect 5)- saturation magnetization becomes larger (exchange interaction is enhanced due to the spin-orbit interaction)
(Effect 6)-interface-induced perpendicular anisotropy (for example, Co/Pt). It is due to a large difference in the spin-orbit enhancement for magnetic field directed along and across the interface
(Effect 7)- changing the magnetization and magnetization direction due to the stress. Magnetostriction (magneto- elastic) effect. The stress in a metallic single-crystal multilayer structure.
(Effect 8)- Anomalous Hall effect (AHE)
The Spin-Orbit interaction describes the fact that an electron experiences an effective magnetic field when it moves in an electrical field.
The effective magnetic field HSO of the Spin-Orbit interaction affects only the electron spin. Interaction of HSO with electron spin leads to
1) There can be a spin precession
2) There can be a damping of the spin precession, which aligns the electron spin along the effective magnetic field of the spin-orbit interaction
3) Electron transport can become spin-dependent
4) The electron energy becomes spin-dependent.
Increase of spin-orbit interaction due to crystal deformation. |
Fig. 20. Due to the crystal deformation, the orbital are deformed and the nuclei are shifted out of the center of the orbital. It makes HSO (green arrow) larger and the magnetic energy larger. |
Green arrows show the effective magnetic field HSO of the spin-orbit interaction. It is large only when the orbitals are deformed. |
Blue arrows show the intrinsic magnetic field Hinside. It the total magnetic field, which electron experience: external magnetic field, magnetic field from neighbor orbitals. The total magnetic field except HSO |
White spheres show the orbitals of the localized d-electrons |
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Q. Both localized (-d,-f) and delocalized (-s,-p) electrons are rotating around nuclei (atoms), is it sufficient for them to experience a strong spin-orbit interaction?
A. No. It is far not sufficient. There are several other conditions the electron should satisfy in order to experience the spin-orbit interaction:
1) The orbital moment (symmetry) should be non-zero. Only electrons, which wave function has the -p,-d,-f- like spacial symmetry may experience the spin-orbit interaction.
2) The time-inverse symmetry should be broken!!
The following describes the reasons why an electron does not experience the spin-orbit interaction when the electron orbit is spherical and why it does experience the spin-orbit interaction for other shapes of the orbital.
When a pressure applied to the film, the atomic orbitals are deformed. There are two types of deformations. (type 1): The orbital becomes more elliptical. (type 2): nuclei are shifted out of the center of the orbital. Both deformation makes the effective magnetic field HSO of the spin-orbit interaction larger.
In a ferromagnetic material the localized electrons have a non-compensated spin, which creates a magnetic field Hmag
At an interface between a magnetic and non-magnetic material, the demagnetization field Hdemag is created due to uncompensated magnetic moment at the interface. The direction of Hdemag is perpendicular to the interface and opposite to Hmag.
The magnetic field Hinside inside of the ferromagnetic field equals Hmag- Hdemag. The Hinside is the total magnetic field except HSO. It includes the external magnetic field
Important fact: Additionally, the electron experience the effective magnetic field HSO of the spin-orbit interaction, which is always directed along Hinside. The magnitude of HSO is proportional to Hinside and the degree of the orbital deformation.
Without a deformation the orbitals of the localized electrons is nearly spherical and the effective magnetic field HSO of the spin-orbit interaction is small.
When the pressure applied, the orbitals are deforms in the direction of the applied pressure and the effective magnetic field HSO of the spin-orbit interaction increases.
The magnetic energy of an electron equals to a product of the electron spin and Hinside+HSO.
When magnetization is perpendicular to the film, the orbital deformation is larger, HSO is larger and the magnetic energy is larger.
When magnetization is in-plane, the orbital deformation is smaller, HSO is smaller and the magnetic energy is smaller.
The dependence of the magnetic energy on the magnetization direction is called the magnetic anisotropy. In the case when the difference of the magnetic energy are with respect to the interface, the effect is called the perpendicular magnetic anisotropy (PMA)
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Animated figure 6. Spin-Orbit Interaction in the center-symmetrical electrical field of atom nucleus. It is an imaginary case when electron moving in a circular orbit around nucleus (for s- symmetry electron, the orbit is spherical). Red arrow indicates the spin direction of electron. Blue arrow indicates the effective magnetic field of the spin-orbit interaction. The effective field appears only when the electron moving. The directions of the effective field is opposite for the opposite direction of the electron movement. There is a spin of precession around the effective magnetic field of the spin-orbit interaction. The electrons spin slowly aligns itself along the effective magnetic field because of the precession damping. |
Distribution of conduction electrons with orbital moment |
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Fig. |
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Spin-orbit interaction (type 3: moderate SO) creation of spin polarization by an electrical current
(source of electrical field): centrosymmetric electrical field of atomic nucleus
(source of breaking of time-inverse symmetry): an electrical current
(induced effects):Spin Hall effect & Inverse Spin Hall effect (main contribution), Spin-Orbit Torque
Movement of a conduction electron in a metal Simultaneously with movement along the crystal a conduction electron rotates around each nucleus. The rotation and the linear movent cause two different types of the spin-orbit interaction. |
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Q. How to make an electron to rotate in one direction more than in the opposite direction??? How to make the spin-orbit interaction stronger??
Simple Answer: It is necessary to deform the electron orbital.
The orbital can be distorted by an electrical field. In this case, the electron experiences the effective magnetic field due to the spin-orbit interaction.
When the orbital is distorted by an external electrical field, the existence of the effective magnetic field due to the spin-orbit interaction is called the Rashba effect.
When the orbital is distorted by an axial crystal field, the existence of the effective magnetic field due to the spin-orbit interaction is called the Dresselhaus effect.
Note: The external magnetic field may deform the orbit. However, the deformation is very small. The magnetic field has another important function for the SO. The magnetic field breaks the time-inverse symmetry, which is a key condition for SO to occur (See below).
orbital momentum in | |||||||||
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There are two kinds of the spin-orbit interaction in a crystal lattice. In both cases an electron experiences an effective magnetic field of the spin-orbit interaction.
Direct (weak)
An electron moves perpendicularly to an electrical field. The electrical field directly induces the magnetic field. For example, such electron movement across an electrical field is possible in in a quantum well. The electrical field could be an externally-applied electrical field, an axial crystal field or/and an electrical field across interface or junction due to a charge accumulation. Only delocalized (conduction) electrons may experience the direct SO.
Indirect (strong)
In this case the magnetic field of the spin-orbit interaction is induced not by an external electrical field, but by the electrical field of a nucleus. The external electrical field just deforms the electron orbital making the spin-orbit interaction stronger.
In contrary to the direct SO, in the case of the indirect SO it is not necessary for an electron to move along the crystal lattice. Therefore, the indirect spin-orbit interaction may experience localized electrons, delocalized (conduction) electrons and standing-wave electrons.
In contrast to direct SO, the indirect SO can occurs only when the time-inverse symmetry is broken. It can be broken by an external magnetic field or a local magnetic field. (See below)
When a crystal consists of different atoms, the electrons are distributed asymmetrically. Some electron orbit is shifted from a cation to be closer to anion. , the orbital becomes deformed. That causes a stronger spin-orbit interaction. This is reason, for example, why the spin-orbit interaction is significantly stronger in GaAs than in Si.
In an ionic crystal the covalent electrons are nearly-fully transformed from a cation to a anion and the electron orbital becomes again more center-symmetrical with a weak spin-orbit interaction. This is reason, for example, why the spin-orbit interaction is significantly weaker in ZnO than in GaAs.
Simple answer: The strength of the spin-orbit interaction is directly proportional to the electric field of the nucleus. The nucleus charge is larger for an element of a larger atomic number. Therefore, the electrical field of the nucleus and the spin-orbit interaction, which is induced by this field, becomes larger as well.
Another reason: the screening by inner electrons becomes weaker and asymmetrical (See below)
Because of the screening of an electrical field of a nucleus by inner electrons , the strength of spin-orbit interaction reduces.
The effects of screening:
(effect 1) The spin-orbit interaction (SO), which is induced by a anion, is smaller than the SO, which is induced by a cation.
Since there are more electrons in the vicinity of an anion than in the vicinity of cation, the screening of nucleus field of anion is larger. Therefore, the spin-orbit interaction induced by the nucleus of anion is smaller.
(effect 2) In atoms of unfilled inner shells the spin-orbit interaction is stronger.
In the case when the inner shell of atom is not fully filled, the screening of the nucleus by the electrons of the inner shell is not centrosymmetric. It makes the spin-orbit interaction stronger.
The magnetic moment of an electron is a quantum- mechanical sum of magnetic moments induced by the spin and induced by the orbital moment.
The increase of the spin-orbit interaction due to deformation of the electron orbital click here or on image to enlarge it |
Fig. 9. Electron orbital. When the orbital is spherical the effective magnetic field of the spin-orbit interaction HSO is zero. Only when the orbital is deformed, there is the magnetic field of the spin-orbit interaction. The effective magnetic field is the largest in the case of a circle or elliptical orbital. |
The type of orbit deformation, which may enlarge the spin-orbit interaction
(1) The electron orbit should be deformed along one direction
(2) The electron orbit should be deformed asymmetrically in respect to its nucleus
The orbital is significantly deformed in compound materials with covalent bonding (like GaAs). Therefore, they have a larger spin-orbit interaction.
In materials with ionic bonding, the orbital is less deformed and they have a smaller spin-orbit interaction (like ZnO).
The p- , d- and f- orbitals are inherently asymmetrical. For each individual p- , d- and f- orbital, the spin-orbit interaction may be strong.
For each individual p- or d- or f- orbital, the time-inverse symmetry is broken. However, in a non-magnetic metal or a semiconductor, where the time-inverse symmetry is not broken, the electron wavefunction is a combination of the wave functions of different moments and it is more symmetric. Therefore, in a crystal the spin-orbit interaction of electrons of p- or d- or f- symmetry may be not as strong as in the case of a separated atom.
In fact, it is the joint work of two relativistic effects: 1) the Lorentz force 2) the spin-orbit interaction
- The Lorentz force, which is induced by an external magnetic field, deforms the electron orbital and breaks the time-inverse symmetry;
- Because of the broken time-inverse symmetry, the strong effective magnetic field is induced by the spin-orbit interaction.
(key property of spin- orbit interaction): |
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This feature of the spin-orbit interaction originates the perpendicular magnetic anisotropy (PMA). See here for details. | |||||||||||||||
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Time-inverse symmetry is not broken click here to enlarge |
Fig. 12. Electron orbital. The green arrows show the direction of the effective magnetic field of the spin-orbit interaction HSO |
Time-inverse symmetry: not broken
Average effective magnetic field of the spin-orbit interaction: zero
When the time-inverse symmetry in the material is not broken, there is an equal probability that electron circulating around the nucleus in the clockwise and anti clockwise directions. Since the electron experiences equal and opposite effective magnetic field of the spin-orbit interaction, in the average the electron does not experiences any effective magnetic field of the spin-orbit interaction. (See Fig. above)
Even in the case when the orbital moment of the electron is not zero, when the time-inverse symmetry in the material is not broken, there is an equal probability for an electron to occupy the orbit with opposite orbital moment and again the average effective magnetic field of the spin-orbit interaction: zero
note: in this case the spin-orbit interaction affects the spin relaxation
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There is no contradiction. Globally, there is no magnetic field in both cases. However, locally each atom experience a magnetic field, which is magnified by the spin-orbit interaction. The magnification is different for the orbital of a different symmetry. As a result, the orbitals experience a different HSO and the orbital energies become different. (See more details Here)
How the time-inverse symmetry is broken:
Time-inverse symmetry is broken click here to enlarge |
Fig. 13. Electron orbital in the presence of external magnetic field (blue arrow). The green arrows show the direction of the effective magnetic field of the spin-orbit interaction HSO The red arrows show the direction the Lorentz force |
It results: Average effective magnetic field of the spin-orbit interaction becomes non-zero
An external magnetic field breaks the time-inverse symmetry and it causes a non-zero average effective magnetic field of the spin-orbit interaction in the direction of the external magnetic field.
Since the electron moves around the nucleus, it experiences the Lorentz force in the magnetic field. The Lorentz force is in opposite directions for electron moving in the clockwise and anticlockwise directions around the magnetic field. The Lorentz force modifies the orbital of electrons. When an electron moves in the anticlockwise direction, it moves closer to the nucleus and it experiences the larger electrical field from the nucleus and the larger corresponded effective magnetic field of the the spin-orbit interaction. When an electron moves in the clockwise direction, it moves more distant from the nucleus and it experiences the smaller electrical field from the nucleus and the smaller corresponded effective magnetic field of the the spin-orbit interaction. In the average, the average the electron experiences a non-zero effective magnetic field of the the spin-orbit interaction in the direction of the external magnetic field.
Fig. 13 shows the diamagnetic response of the atom to the external magnetic field. Therefore, a material with the largest diamagnetic constant should have the largest spin-orbit interaction.
Notice: all electrons have the diamagnetic response shown in Fig. 13, including electrons of the inner orbitals and electrons of the inert gases. However, the electrons of the the external orbitals have uncompensated spin and only they experiences the spin-orbit interaction.
The increase of the effective magnetic field due to the spin orbit interaction |
Fig. 14. The external magnetic field Hext induces the effective magnetic field of the spin-orbit interaction HSO, which is is in the same direction as the external magnetic field.. Therefore, the total magnetic field, which the electron experiences, becomes larger. |
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When a magnetic applied to the material, it breaks the time inverse symmetry. As result, the electron starts to experience non-zero effective field of the spin-orbit interaction.
The effective magnetic field HSO of the spin-orbit interaction is in the same direction as the applied external magnetic field.
The total magnetic field, which the electron experiences, becomes larger. In some cases, the total effective magnetic field may be a significantly larger than the external magnetic field.
The induced effective magnetic field of the spin-orbit interaction may be significantly different for different directions of the applied external magnetic field. It is the largest in the direction, in which the electron orbit is deformed (See Fig. 14).
Spin relaxation due to non-zero orbital moment of a conduction electron |
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(Mechanism): The incoherent spin precession around HSO
The spins of all spin- polarized electrons are directed in one direction. In contrast, the direction of HSO is different for electrons moving in different directions. As a result, the angle between electron spin and HSO is different for the spin- polarized electrons moving in different directions. There is a spin precession around HSO. Since the directions of HSO are different for conduction electrons moving in different directions, their precession directions are different as well. The precession in different directions misaligns spins of spin- polarized electrons, which causes the spin relaxation.
A. Additionally to the mechanism of the spin misalignment (mechanisms of the spin relaxation), there are mechanisms, which align all spins in one direction (mechanism of the spin pumping). The simple electron scatterings are most efficient as a spin alignment mechanisms. The symmetry- and spin- feature of electron scatterings is that they redistribute randomly spin- misaligned group of conduction electrons into a group of spin- polarized electrons, in which all spins are aligned in one direction, and the group of spin- unpolarized electrons, in which spins are distributed equally in all directions. See here more details about scatterings and spin distributions.
Spin relaxation |
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Spin relaxation is a joint work of (1) spin misalignment due to spin precession around HSO and (2) scatterings |
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The direction of vector from axis origin to the pink sphere corresponds to the electron movement direction. The length of a vector from axis origin to sphere is proportional to the number of electrons moving in the vector direction. The blue arrows show the direction of . The direction of is different for electron moving in different directions. The green balls shows the spin direction of spin- polarized conduction electrons. The size of the green balls is proportional to the number of the spin- polarized electrons | |||||
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wiki page about g-factor is here
The g-factor describes the ratio between the spin or the orbital moment and the magnetic moment of an electron
For an electron in free space the value of g equals to 2.002319
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There are two cases where the g-factor is used and it can be measured:
1) Ferromagnetic resonance and electron paramagnetic resonance. The g-factor describes the precession frequency (Larmor frequency) of the spin in an external magnetic field. The external magnetic field is applied at an angle with respect to the spin direction.
2) Zeeman effect. The g-factor describes the energy difference for electrons, which spins are along and opposite to the direction of the magnetic field.
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Important notice: The g-factor, which is measured from the ferromagnetic or paramagnetic resonance, is not always same as the g-factor, which is measured from the Zeeman spliting.
The reason of the difference: In a solid there is no precession of the orbital moment in a magnetic field (See here) , but the orbital moment contributes to the Zeeman spliting.
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In atoms when the spin is compensated and the magnetic moment is only due to the orbital moment, the g-factor equals to 1. The g-factor of atoms of gas is between 2 and 1.
In crystal:
1) The orbital moment of localized and delocalized electrons in a crystal does not contribute to the ferromagnetic or paramagnetic resonance, because the external electron orbits are fixed by the crystal structure and the interactions with neighbor atoms.
2) orbital moment is contributes to the Zeeman splitting.
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non-magnetic materials (paramagnetic and diamagnetic materials)
When an external magnetic field is applied, an electron in crystal experiences a larger magnetic field, because the effective magnetic field is enlarged due to the spin-orbit interaction.
Even though in the reality the effective electron g-factor does not change and only the effective magnetic field changes due to the spin-orbit interaction, it is convenient to assume the g-factor of the material is changed, but the magnetic field remains unchanged. Therefore, the Larmor frequency can be calculated as
where kSO is coefficient, which described the enhancement of the magnetic field due to the spin-orbit interaction. From Eq. (g4), the Larmor frequency is calculated as
where the g-factor is
Often the g-factor is defined and measured for the external magnetic field strength H instead of the magnetic induction B. In this case the effective g-factor can be used
Content
g-factor
conduction band (bulk):
GaAs : -0.3 (300 K) -0.45 (50 K)
InAs: -15
InP: 1.5
GaSb=-8
InSb=-51.3
n-Si: =1.9985
p-Si=2
Cu=
Specific magnetic susceptibility (CGS-emu=Si-unit/4pi)
Ge | Si | InAs | GaAs | InSb | GaSb | Al | Ag | Cu | ||||||
-1.15 | -1.08 | -1.2 | -1.25 | -1.25 | -1.35 | 1.75×10−6 | −1.84×10−6 | −0.083×10−6 |
Paramagnetic (Si unit)
FeO | Pt | Al | W | Cr | Ti | ||
720×10−5 | 26×10−5 | 2.2×10−5 | 6.8×10−5 | 3.13×10−4 | 1.81×10−4 |
Diamagnetic (Si unit)
Ag | Cu | Au | Si | Al2O3 | |||
-2.6×10−5 | -1×10−5 | -3.44×10−5 | -0.41×10−5 | -1.81×10−5 |
EPR for Ge=2
9.3882 GHz-> 3.35 kG
ferromagnetic metals
In ferromagnetic metals
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g factor
free electron
g=2.0023
Fe g=2.088
Co g=2.18
Ni g=2.2
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4piM=
Ni= 6.2 kG
Py=17.1 kG
Co=17.8 kG
Fe=21.4 kG
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;;;;;FMR
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FMR magnetic field for 9.8 GHz
Ni= 1600 G
Py=700 G
Co=690 G
Fe=600 G
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relaxation parameters
Fe 57 MHz ( alfa= 0.002)
Ni 220 MHZ
Co 170 MHz
Py 114 MHz
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for YIG width of FMR resonance
0.15 Oe -0.2 Oe
In the of paramagnetic metals, the spin-orbit interaction does not produced any additional magnetic field or magnetization inside material. It only makes larger the effective magnetic field, which the electron experiences.
Note: Both the magnetic susceptibility and the spin-orbit interaction enhance the effective magnetic field, which an electron experiences. Except ferromagnetic metals, the enhancement due to the magnetic susceptibility is much weaker than the enhancement due to the spin-orbit interaction. For example (See above), in diamagnetic materials the enhancement is only about -0.001 %, in paramagnetic it is 0.01 %. As can be evaluated from the g-factor, the enhancement due to the spin-orbit interaction is 1-10 % for the most of materials. In the case of III-V semiconductors (GaAs,InAs), the enhancement may be more than 100 %.
(key property 2 of spin-orbit interaction): |
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Perpendicular-to-plane magnetic anisotropy at a Fe/Pt interface |
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Fig.15. Schematic diagram of Pt/Fe interface. The blue and red spheres show the electron orbitals in Fe and Co, respectively. Blue arrows shows the magnetization (spin of localized d-electrons). The green arrows show the effective magnetic field HSO of the spin-orbit interaction. The orbital of the localized electrons are shown. |
The magnetization of a single-material ferromagnetic film is in - plane. In the case when the film consists of a thin layers of different metals, the magnetization could be out of plane. The example of such multi-layered films are Co/Pt, Fe(fcc)/Pt, Co/Tb, Fe(fcc)/Tb.
Since the strength of the spin-orbit interaction depends of the shape of the electron orbit in a crystal, the perpendicular-to-plane magnetic anisotropy only a feature of a specific crystal orientation and only a specific crystal orientations of the interfaces. For example, in all above-mentioned cases the perpendicular-to-plane magnetic anisotropy is feature of only fcc(111) interfaces or very similar hcp interfaces
Perpendicular-to-plane magnetic anisotropy occurs due to a strong effective magnetic field of the spin-orbit interaction at the interface . The enhancement of the effective field of the spin-orbit interaction occurs because of a deformation of the orbital of the ferromagnetic and non-magnetic metals in the close vicinity of the interface.
In the bulk of the metals, the shape of the orbitals are close to a sphere (shown as the red and blue-colored spheres). In the vicinity of the contact, the orbitals are deformed.
Thickness-dependence of PMA |
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Fig.16. Magnetization of CoFeB film grown on MgO. The magnetization of a thick film (thickness >1.5 nm) is in-plane , but the magnetization of a thinner film is perpendicular-to-plane |
It should be noticed that the magnetizations of a thin Fe(bcc)(001) on Cu(bcc)(001), on Ta (001), on W(100) is also is perpendicular to plane.
Since the strength of the spin-orbit interaction depends of the shape of the electron orbit in a crystal, the perpendicular-to-plane magnetic anisotropy only a feature of a specific crystal orientation and only a specific crystal orientations of the interfaces.
For example, the magnetization of a thin Co(hcp) or Co (fcc) film on MgO or on Cu is in-plane.
Increase of spin-orbit interaction due to crystal deformation. |
Fig. 20. Due to the crystal deformation, the orbital are deformed and the nuclei are shifted out of the center of the orbital. It makes HSO (green arrow) larger and the magnetic energy larger. |
Green arrows show the effective magnetic field HSO of the spin-orbit interaction |
Blue arrows show the intrinsic magnetic field Hinside |
White spheres show the orbitals of the localized d-electrons |
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When a pressure applied to the film, the atomic orbitals are deformed. There are two types of deformations. (type 1): The orbital becomes more elliptical. (type 2): nuclei are shifted out of the center of the orbital. Both deformation makes the effective magnetic field HSO of the spin-orbit interaction larger.
Without a deformation the orbitals of the localized electrons is nearly spherical and the effective magnetic field HSO of the spin-orbit interaction is small.
When the pressure applied, the orbitals are deforms in the direction of the applied pressure and the effective magnetic field HSO of the spin-orbit interaction increases.
In a ferromagnetic material the localized electrons have a non-compensated spin, which creates a magnetic field Hmag
At an interface between a magnetic and non-magnetic material, the demagnetization field Hdemag is created due to uncompensated magnetic moment at the interface. The direction of Hdemag is perpendicular to the interface and opposite to Hmag.
The magnetic field Hinside inside of the ferromagnetic field equals Hmag- Hdemag
Additionally, the electron experience the effective magnetic field HSO of the spin-orbit interaction, which is always directed along Hinside. The magnitude of HSO is proportional to Hinside and the degree of the orbital deformation.
The magnetic energy of an electron equals to a product of the electron spin and Hinside+HSO.
When magnetization is perpendicular to the film, the orbital deformation is larger, HSO is larger and the magnetic energy is larger.
When magnetization is in-plane, the orbital deformation is smaller, HSO is smaller and the magnetic energy is smaller.
The dependence of the magnetic energy on the magnetization direction is called the magnetic anisotropy. In the case when the difference of the magnetic energy are with respect to the interface, the effect is called the perpendicular magnetic anisotropy (PMA)
Strains
The perpendicular-to-plain magnetization may also increase (decrease) due to strain.
When a thin film is grown on a substrate of different lattice constant, the film is strained.
When the lattice parameter of the film is larger than that of the substrate, the strains are tensile. The effective magnetic field of the spin-orbit interaction, which induced by the strains, is directed perpendicularly to the film plane.
When the lattice parameter of the film is larger than that of the substrate, the strains are compressive. The effective magnetic field of the spin-orbit interaction, which induced by the strains, is directed in plane.
Fe (BCC) = 2.870Å (along [110] 2.03 Å )
Ta (BCC)= 3.310 Å (along [110] 2.34 Å )
Cr (BCC) =2.880 A (along [110] 2.036 Å )
V (BCC)=3.020 A (along [110] 2.135 Å )
W(BCC) =3.160 A
Cu (BCC metastable) =2.88 Å
Co (hcp) =2.59 Å
Ru (hcp) =2.700 Å
Ti(hcp)= 2.950 A
Pt (FCC) =3.920 Å (a/2=1.96)
Au (FCC)=4.080 Å (a/2=2.040Å)
Cu(FCC) =3.610
Al (FCC)=4.050 (a/2=2.025)
Pd (FCC) =3.890
notice: hcp and fcc structures are very similar (See here),
BCC cell consists of 2 net atoms, The bcc unit cell has a packing factor of 0.68.
FCC cell consists of 4 net atoms. The bcc unit cell has a packing factor of 0.74.
hcp cell consists of 6 net atoms. The bcc unit cell has a packing factor of 0.74.
MgO lattice constant a = 4.212Å (a/2=2.106Å)
Si=5.431 Å (a/2=2.7155) (along [110] 1.92 Å )
Ge=5.66 Å (a/2=2.83) (along [110] 2.001 Å )
GaAs= 5.65325 Å (a/2=2.826625 ) (along [110] 1.9987 Å )
Fe:GaAs (GaAs(110) easy axis)
TiN (cubic)
Young's modulus (tensile strain) & Bulk module (compressive strain)
SiO2= 68 GPa -- &--35 GPa
Al= 69 GPa -- &--76 GPa
Au= 79 GPa--&--220 GPa
Ti=110 GPa ---&--110 GPa
Cu=118 GPa-- &--140 GPa
Pt=168 GPa-- &--230 GPa
Ta= 186 GPa-- &-- 200 GPa
Fe=210 GPa-- &--170 GPa
Co= 209 GPa-- &--180 GPa
W=400 GPa-- &--310 GPa
Ru= 447 GPa -- &--220 GPa
Ir=528 GPa -- &--320 GPa
MgO= 270-330 GPa-- &--250 GPa
MgO bulk elastic properties
Compressive Strength 800-1600 MPa
Elastic Limit 80-166 MPa
Hardness 5-7 GPa
Breakdown Potential= 6-10 MV/m=0.006-0.01 V/nm
Conductivities (S/m)
Silver | 6.30E+07 |
Copper | 5.96E+07 |
Gold | 4.10E+07 |
Aluminium | 3.50E+07 |
Tungsten | 1.79E+07 |
Co | 1.66E+07 |
Nickel | 1.43E+07 |
Ru | 1.40E+07 |
Iron | 1.00E+07 |
Platinum | 9.43E+06 |
Tin | 9.17E+06 |
Cr | 7.87E+06 |
Ta | 7.40E+06 |
Carbon steel (1010) | 6.99E+06 |
Lead | 4.55E+06 |
Titanium | 2.38E+06 |
Stainless steel | 1.45E+06 |
titanium Nitride | 1.42-3.33E6 |
Strain relaxation and the critical thickness.
The strain field, which acts on the film-substrate interface, is linearly proportional to the film thickness. The thin film has the in-plane lattice parameter the same as that of the substrate. As the film thickness increases the strain field, which acts on the interface, increases. At some thickness the strain field becomes sufficient to create a dislocation at interface. This thickness is called the critical thickness. The dislocations reduce the strain in the film. The process of the creation of the dislocation is called the stain relaxation mechanism.
The critical thickness depends on the crystal quality of the film and the strain relaxation mechanism. Approximately, the critical thickness hcritical can be calculated from relation:
notice: Eq. (3) is valid only for high-crystal quality low-defect-density materials. Otherwise, the ratio (3) becomes smaller than 0.7.
Example 1. AlGaAs (001)on GaAs(001)
The lattice constant of AlGaAs (x=0.5) is 0.069 % larger than the lattice constant of GaAs.
The strains are compressive. The critical thickness approximately equals to 1 um.
Example 2. InGaAs(001) on GaAs(001)
The lattice constant of InGaAs (x=0.5) is 3.582 % larger than the lattice constant of GaAs.
The strains are compressive. The critical thickness approximately equals to 19.5 nm.
Example 3. Fe(001) on MgO(001)
The lattice spacing of MgO (001) in [110] direction is 3.74 % smaller than lattice spacing of Fe (001) in [100] direction.
For Fe film on MgO, the strains are tensile. For MgO film on Fe, the strains are compressive.
The critical thickness in both cases approximately equals to 18.7 nm.
3.74% of tensile strains in Fe correspond to mechanical tensile stress of 7.44 GPa
3.74% of strains in MgO correspond to mechanical compressive stress of 9.3 GPa. It is significantly larger than the elastic limit of MgO of 160 MPa, and compressive Strength of 1.6 GPa
bulk
MgO lattice constant a = 4.212Å (a/2=2.106Å)
Fe (BCC) lattice constant a = 2.870Å (along [110] 2.03 Å )
Case of MgO (1.8nm) on Fe (See Yuasa et al. Nature Material (2004))
MgO
Even the is much less than the critical thickness, the 2/3 of strains is relaxed (from 3.74% to 1.2 % (2.54% of strains are relaxed))
experiment:
the lattice spacing is elongated along the [001] axis by 5% and is compressed along the [100] axis by 1.2% compared with the lattice of bulk MgO (compressive stress 3 GPa . It is larger than compressive Strength of 1.6 GPa).
Fe
tensile strained (max 2.54%)
experiment
the lattice of the top Fe electrode is expanded by 1.9% along the [110] axis, which means that 0.64% is relaxed. (2.54%-1.9%)
tensile stress is 4 GPa
Example 4 Ta on Fe
The lattice constant of Ta is 13 % larger than lattice constant of Fe.
Ta is compressively strained. A thin Ta can be used with tensile-strained Fe in order to reduce the strain field and to increase the critical thickness of the tensile-strained Fe.
Magnetostriction
The mechanical stress σ can be calculated
where ε is the total strain, E is the Young’s modulus at magnetic saturation and λ is the magneto elastic strain
The effect describes the change of shape of a ferromagnetic material when its magnetization changes.
The origin of the effect
Magnetostatic interaction between domains in the ferromagnetic materials. When shape, size, magnetization inside domains changes, the strength of the magnetostatic interaction between domains changes and the lattice contracts or expands.
Note: in a single-domain nanomagnet the magnetostriction of this type does not exists.
Materials
Terfenol-D (TbxDy1-xFe2)
The magnetostriction of the Terfenol-D generates strains 100 times greater than traditional magnetostrictive, and 2-5 times greater than traditional piezoceramics.
For typical transducer and actuator applications, Terfenol-D is the most commonly used engineering magnetostrictive material.
Elastic properties (Tb0.3Dy0.7Fe1.92)
Young's Modulus=25-35 GPa
Enhancement of the spin-orbit interaction due to electrically induced orbital polarization |
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Fig.17. The yellow mesh shows the electron orbital; the blue arrow shows direction and magnitude of external magnetic field; the green arrow shows direction and magnitude of the effective field of the spin-orbit interaction; the red arrows shows direction and magnitude of the applied electrical field; the oval at left- bottom corner shows the induced dipole polarization of the orbital. |
The external magnetic field induces the magnetic field along its direction. In the case of near-spherical orbit (Fig. 17), the enhancement is small and the magnetic field of the spin-orbit interaction is small.
In the external electrical field the positively-charged nucleus moves a little toward the direction of the electrical field. The negatively-charged electrons move in the opposite direction.
Without the electrical field the charge was symmetrically distributed (Fig. 17 left). When the electrical field is applied there is more positive charge at right side and there is more negative charge at the left side. Therefore, the electrical field induces a dipole polarization in the material. The dipole polarization is described by permittivity of the material.
Also, the magnetic field of the spin-orbit interaction becomes larger. Under the electrical field the electron orbit is deformed so that at the left side the electron distribution becomes denser in the close vicinity of the nucleus. Therefore, at the left side of the nucleus the electron experiences a larger electrical field and a larger corresponded magnetic field of the spin-orbit interaction. Even at the right side of the nucleus the spin-orbit interaction is reduced, in total the spin-orbit interaction becomes larger in the electrical field. It is because the electrical field of nucleus decays as 1/r^2 and at left side it increases sharply, but at the right the decrease is small.
The spin-orbit interaction by itself cannot break the time inverse-symmetry!
Enhancement of the spin-orbit interaction due to electrically induced orbital polarization click here or on image to enlarge it |
Fig. |
Due to the spin-orbit interaction the electron scattering may become the spin-dependent.
The SO interaction is important for a large objects as well. For example, the influence of SO interaction is very strong in case of a Giant object (like a neutron star or a black hole). In the vicinity of these giant objects the particles move at near the speed of light and there is a substantial electrical field. As a result, the SO magnetic field is very strong in the vicinity of a neutron star or a black hole.
The Spin-Orbit interaction is a relativistic effect, but not a Quantum-Mechanical effect. The Dirac equations are relativistic quantum-mechanical equations describing the quantum field of electrons. As any relativistic equations, they contain the information about the SO interaction. Any relativistic equations, which describe the photon-electron interaction, should contain a description of the SO interaction. For example, the Maxwell's equations contain the description of the SO interaction as well.
Only a field of the SO interaction is the magnetic field. The SO magnetic field HSO is a very "normal" magnetic field, which is undistinguished from any other magnetic fields (e.g. the magnetic field created by an electrical current). There is only one difference between HSO and "normal" magnetic field, HSO cannot induce the Lorentz force
An electron experiences the SO magnetic field only in the coordinate system, which moves together with the electron. In this coordinate system, the electron does not move. It stay still. Therefore, in this coordinate system the electron does have any orbital moment or any movement-relative property and the SO magnetic field can only interact with the electron spin. The spin is only one magnetic property remaining for a motionless still object. For the same reason, the SO magnetic field does not create the Lorentz force. The Lorentz force is created when an electron moves in a magnetic field. In the coordinate system where the SO magnetic field HSO exists, the electron does not move. This property is related to the Quantum Mechanics.
The SO interaction is not small at all. In a ferromagnetic metal with perpendicular magnetic anisotropy (PMA), HSO may reach tens of kGauss. For example, in a thin Fe film it can override the demagnetization field of 20-30 kGauss and align the magnetization perpendicularly to the film surface.
The SO interaction is not directly related to the orbital moment (see here). Even though in same specific cases, such relation can be established.
As was shown above, the strength of the spin orbit interaction substantially depends on the breaking on the orbital spatial symmetry and the time-inverse symmetry. The orbital symmetry is different for an electron of a different orbital moment. As was shown above, the dependence of the SO interaction on the orbital spatial symmetry is more rich and complex than just its dependence on its orbital moment.
Note: the formulas for orbital momentum and the spin-orbit interaction are very similar. The difference between them is only coefficient 1/r2. In close vicinity of the nucleus, the 1/r2 is huge and it makes a huge difference.
A. Yes. Even though the Schrödinger equation is not a relativistic equation, its combination with the Maxwell's equations, which are relativistic equations, gives a correct description of the SO interaction. The spin properties should be included into the solution. Such description includes the relativistic features of the electromagnetic field, but does not include the relativistic features of the quantum field of an electrons. However, for a description of effects in a solid state these features can be included by adjusting some parameters and constants.
Dirac equations calculates both contributions to the spin-orbit interaction (contribution 1) due to relativistic nature of the electromagnetic field. (contribution 2) due to relativistic nature of the quantum field of an electron.
Schrödinger equation calculates only contribution 1 due to relativistic nature of the electromagnetic field. It does not calculate contribution 2 due to relativistic nature of the quantum field of an electron.
The Einstein's relativistic equation for the energy is
which should describe the electron field as well. The quantum-mechanical for the energy and the momentum are
Substituting Eq.(3.2) into Eq.(3.2) gives Klein-Gordon equation as
Considering limitation on the possible symmetries of the wave function, the wave equation should be 1st order differential equation with respect of time and space. Dirac has found that the Klein-Gordon equation can be represented as a product of 1st order differential equation and its conjugate. Therefore, such the wave equation fully describes the electron field.
where the gamma matrices (2 × 2 sub-matrices taken from the Pauli matrices)
The Dirac equation, which includes the gauge potential, is
Probably not. The Dirac equation and the Pauli equation, both do include the conservation of the time-inverse symmetry and spin. It is difficult to answer about the Klein-Gordon equation.
In this case wave function can be represented as a sum of a large "electron" part and a small "positron" part.
Yes, the effective magnetic field HSO should be used in Eq.(3.2) additionally to the external magnetic field. Then, the Pauli equation correctly describes the SO interaction
The gauge invariant A is the invariant for the Lorentz transformation, but the wave function of the Pauli equation is not a invariant. Therefore, in contrast to the Dirac equation the Pauli equation is not an invariant for the Lorentz transformation. The reason why HSO is not included into the Pauli equation, but should be input as additional magnetic field, is following. The Pauli equation is the equation, which is valid in only one static coordinate system. When an electron moves in this static coordinate system, the Pauli equation becomes not valid. The relativistic transformation of the quantum field of an electron are missing in Pauli equation. However, the adding of HSO fixes the problem and the Pauli equation becomes valid again.
The Pauli equation is the extension of Schrödinger equation, where electron spin properties are included
The Pauli equation can be considered as a semi- relativistic equation. They place is between simpler, but approximate Schrödinger equation and full, but more complex Dirac equation.
The Pauli equation can be obtained from the Dirac equation.
where A is the magnetic vector potential and is φ the electric scalar potential. σ is the Pauli matrices
The magnetic field can be calculated as
Substituting Eq.(4.2) into Eq.(4.2) gives
demerits:
Fine structure |
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The fine spliting of the energy levels of a hydrogen atom. The fine structure correction predicts that the Lyman-alpha line (emitted in a transition from n=2 to n=1) must split into a doublet. |
Image taken from here. click on image to enlarge it |
Two effects: (1) the fine structure and (2) the difference between energies of heavy and light holes) exists due to the spin orbit interaction. In both cases there is no external magnetic field, but there is a substantial spin-orbit interaction. Why?
There is no contradiction. Globally, there is no magnetic field in both cases. However, when the orbital moment of an atom is a non-zero, locally the time-inverse-symmetry is broken for each atom and each atom experiences a magnetic field HSO of the spin-orbit interaction. Since the directions of the orbital moments are equally distributed in all directions, the gas is non-magnetic and globally there is no breaking of the time-inverse symmetry. Still changes the electron energy and there is a difference of electron energies of electrons of different orbital moments.
Difference between Global and Local breaking of the time-inverse symmetry (TIS)
It can be understood from the following example, which describes the Zeeman splitting of a gas of atoms in a magnetic field and in which the more complex effect of the spin-orbit interaction is not involved. Let us consider a gas of atoms. Each atom has a magnetic moment and a non-zero spin. Both the local and global breaking of TIS lead to the energy splitting. However, only the global breaking creates the directional- dependency of gas or material properties.
(global symmetry breaking): The symmetry is broken globally, when a sufficiently-strong external magnetic field is applied. As a result, the magnetic moment of all atoms is aligned along the magnetic field. The magnetic field field breaks the time-inverse symmetry. It results in two changes. The first change the energy of electrons with spins along and opposite the magnetic field becomes different. As a result, one energy level splits into two levels. The second result of the time-inverse symmetry breaking is that the properties of the atomic gas become direction- dependent. E.g. left- and right- circular polarized light is absorbed differently, when light propagates along the magnetic field and the absorption is the same when the light propagates perpendicularly to the field.
(local symmetry breaking): The symmetry is broken locally, but not globally, when there is a magnetic field in each atom along the atom magnetic moment, but the magnetic moments of all atoms are not aligned. It is the case when there is no external magnetic field and the magnetic moments of atoms of the gas are distributed equally in all directions. In this case there is no any directional asymmetry, but the energy splitting still remains. Each atom has the equal energy splitting independently on direction of its magnetic moment. Even though globally there is no magnetic field, the atoms of the gas experiences the Zeeman splitting.
Spin-orbit interaction makes properties of light and heavy holes different |
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The the light and heavy holes experience a different magnitude of the spin-orbit interaction, due to the different symmetry of their the spacial distribution. The spin-orbit interaction causes the difference of properties between the light and heavy holes. |
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It describes the fact that in the hydrogen gas the p- energy level is splits in two levels: the lower-energy level (J=1/2) and the higher-energy level (J=3/2).(More details see here)
(The reason of the energy splitting:) The orbital moment of a p- electron is non-zero. As a result, the p- electron experiences the additional spin-orbit magnetic field HSO and corresponding additional energy ESO=HSO*S, where S is the electron spin. HSO depends on the spacial symmetry of the orbital. The spacial symmetry of the orbitals of J=1/2 and J=3/2 are different. As a result, the electrons experience a different HSO and have a different energies.
In a molecular or atomic gas, all values of the orbital moment, HSO and electron spin are non-zero. The orbital moment, HSO and electron spin are directed in one direction specific for each individual atom. Each atoms creates a dipole magnetic field around itself and theretofore it can be considered as a tiny magnet. However, the atomic gas in total is not magnetic. It is because the directions of the orbital moments, HSO and spins are equally distributed in all direction. Still HSO changes the energy of each atom, which is independent on the direction of magnetic moment of each atoms and remains as a feature of the whole gas. The dependence of HSO on the orbital moment (orbital symmetry) causes the fine energy splitting.
In a semiconductor, the holes have p- spacial symmetry. The holes are divided into two classes: the light (J=1/2) and heavy (J=3/2) holes.
(reason of difference between light and heavy holes) The the light and heavy holes experience a different magnitude of the spin-orbit interaction, due to their different orbital symmetry (orbital moment). The spin-orbit interaction causes the difference of energies (properties) between the light and heavy holes.
The orbital moment of a hole is non-zero. As a result, the hole experiences the spin-orbit magnetic field HSO and corresponding additional energy ESO=HSO*S, where S is the electron spin. HSO depends on the spacial symmetry of the orbital. The spacial symmetry of a light hole (J=1/2) and a heavy hole (J=3/2 ) are different. As a result, the the light and heavy holes experience a different HSO and have a different energies.
3 types of magnetic field |
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The spin properties of electrons are exactly the same for each type of the magnetic field. In an equilibrium the electron spin is aligned along the total magnetic field, which is a vector sum of all three types of the magnetic field. There is a spin precession before the alignment. | ||||||||||||
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Dynamo effect |
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In contrast, the production of fakes in a larger numbers is much easier |
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The result of the both effect is absolutely indetical. Both effects, the spin- orbit interaction and the dynamo effect, amplify an externally applied magnetic field. When a weak magnetic field is applied, the dynamo effect or the spin-orbit interaction creates much stronger magnetic field (10 times stronger or more) parrall to the the external magnetic field.
(result 1 of dynamo effect): Earth magnetic field ~0.5 Gauss
(result 2 of dynamo effect): Sun magnetic field ~1 Gauss
(result 3 of dynamo effect): magnetic field of a Sun dark spot ~4000 Gauss
(result 4 of dynamo effect): magnetic field of a netron star millions of Gauss
A. There are several reasons why:
(reason 1): In the case of a deformed orbital, the electron distribution become more close to the atomic nucleus (at least some of the distribution). In order for the SO be large, the electron should move in a very large electrical field, which is only exists in a very close proximity of the nucleus. Only this region mainly contributes to SO. If the ionic or atomic radius (see here or here) is about 50-100 pm, the region with radius only 1-2 pm contributes about 99% to SO (number might be slight different from case to case due to the symmetry and frequent cancelation of SO in the proximity of the nucleus).Usually a deformation of orbital moves electron (electron distribution) closer to the nucleus, which makes the SO larger.
(reason 2): In the case when the orbital moment is zero, the SO is zero, because it has two opposite contributions, which of compensate and cancel each other(see here). The deformation makes the orbital moment larger. There is no balance between two opposite contributions and the SO is enlarged. The localized electrons and the conduction electrons of the s-symmetry (e.g. n-type electrons in a semiconductor) have zero orbital moment.
(reason 3): The SO is enhanced by an external magnetic field, because of the symmetry breaking due to the Lorentz force induced by the external magnetic field. This enhancement is more efficient for less symmetrical orbital.
A. You are right. An external magnetic field enhances the SO in the case of the spherical orbital as well. However, the enhancement is more efficient for a deformed orbital than for a spherical orbital. This can be understood as follows. A deformed orbital has some part of electron distribution, which is very close to the nucleus.
A. The spin-orbit interaction is relativistic effect (it is not a quantum- mechanical effect). All effects due to the spin- orbit interaction exist for both a small object (which should be described by a wave- function) and a large object ( which can be approximated as a point- like classical object).
A. The spin- orbit interaction is a relativistic effect, which just describes the transformation of the electro - magnetic field between coordinate systems moving with different speeds (Also, it describes the transformation of the quantum field of electron between different coordinate systems (See Dirac Eq.)). If the time- inverse symmetry is not broken in one coordinate system, it is not broken in any other coordinate system. It doesn't matter whether the coordinate system is moving or not. It is the reason why the spin- orbit interaction cannot break the time- inverse symmetry. In order to manifest itself, the spin- orbit interaction always requires an external breaking of the time- inverse symmetry.
A.(time- inverse symmetry & electrical current) An electrical current is always breaking the time inverse symmetry. The reversal of time makes the electrons to move in the opposite direction. The time -inverse symmetry is broken for any material property, which depends on the direction of electron movements or the polarity of the current.
(weak SO & breaking of time- inverse symmetry) It is the basic relativistic SO, which describes the fact that an electron is experiences a magnetic field when it moves perpendicularly to an electrical field. This effect can be understood as following. The electrical field is only one specific case of the more general electromagnetic (EM) field. The electron can experience only electrical field without magnetic field only in the case when both the electron and the electrical field do not move. When electron moves perpendicularly to the electrical field, additionally to the electrical- field component, the electron experiences the magnetic component of the electromagnetic field. This magnetic component is called the magnetic field HSO of spin- orbit interaction.
(breaking of time inverse symmetry for weak (or basic) SO) The direction of magnetic field HSO is fixed relatively to the direction of the electrical field and the direction of electron movement. In the case of the forward movement and the direction of the electrical field to the right hand, the direction of HSO is up (See page top fig.). When the movement direction of electron is reversed (or the time direction is reversed), the electrical field becomes toward the left hand and therefore the direction of HSO becomes down. To summarize the origin of the weak SO contains the breaking of time- symmetry
(moderate SO & breaking of time- inverse symmetry) The example of the moderate SO is the Inverse Spin Hall effect (ISHE) (See my page on the Spin Hall effect). The ISHE describes the fact that an electrical current is created perpendicularly to the flow of the spin- polarized current (spin current) due to spin- dependent scatterings (and SO). E.g. it occurs when the probability of electron scattered to the left and right direction are slightly different with respect to the electron movement direction. This asymmetry of scattering can occurs in a spin- polarized electron gas (e.g. in a ferromagnetic metal) and its origin is the SO.
The reason why the breaking of the time- inverse symmetry is critically important for this effect can be understood as follows. Let us start from the case when there is no current and the time- inverse symmetry is not broken. From a view of a static observer, if for a forward- moving electron the scattered probability to the left is higher than to the right, for a backward- moving electron the probability is higher to the right than to the left. When there is no electrical current and the time- inverse symmetry is not broken, there are equal amounts of electrons moving in the forward and backward directions. In total, the number of electrons scattered into the left and into the right are equal and there is no electron current from the left to right. When there is an electron current in the forward direction and the time- inverse symmetry is broken, the number of electrons moving in the forward direction is larger than in the backward direction. As a result, there are more electrons are scattered to the left than to the right, which results an electron current from the left to the right. To summarize, the breaking the time- inverse symmetry by electrical current creates a perpendicular electron current.
A.(breaking of time- inverse symmetry ) Magnetic field, spin, electrical current, orbital moment, they are all objects for which the time inverse- symmetry is already broken. They all reverse their own direction when the time is reversed. Additionally, when the time- asymmetrical object is interacting with a time- symmetrical object, the time- symmetrical object may become time- asymmetrical. For example, an external magnetic field may induce a magnetic moment for electron orbital, which initially has no magnetic moment. It is the origin of the PMA effect (strong SO).
(conservation of time- inverse symmetry ) Some objects can spontaneously break the time- inverse symmetry. For example, assembly of spins + exchange interaction can do it. The spins can spontaneously be aligned along one direction. However, it is a very exceptional case. The time-inverse symmetry is a well- conserved quantity and cannot be broken.
(HSO & time- inverse symmetry) Now I am approaching to the answer to your question. It is very important that the spin- orbit interaction cannot break the time- inverse symmetry by itself. It needs some external breaking (like an external magnetic field or an electrical current) in order to manifest itself. It is a very important feature of SO.
It should be noted that the SO can still influence the electron energy without breaking the time- inverse symmetry. For example, in an atomic gas the SO aligns electron spin along the orbital moment for each individual atom. However, in total for whole atomic gas is not broken due to random orientation of orbital moments in the gas.
In the case of the weak and moderate SO, the electrical current breaks the time- inverse symmetry. In the case of the strong SO (PMA), the magnetic field (magnetization) breaks the time- inverse symmetry.
The Spin-orbit Interaction (SOT) is a general physical effect, which describes a relativistic property of the electromagnetic field. The SOT describes the magnetic field, which an electron experiences, when moving in an electrical field.
The Spin-orbit coupling (SOC) is a perturbation calculation method for the SOT for a specific case when the electric field is the electric field of a nucleus. The SOC assumes that the SOT is small and calculates it as a tiny perturbation. It is an absolutely incorrect assumption. In close proximity of the nucleus the electrical field is huge and the SOT induced by a nucleus is not small at all. For example, in a sample having PMA (See my page on PMA) the SOT magnetic field may be huge (about 10 kGauss).
The SOC perturbation method was developed about 100 years ago, when there were no computers and there was no another option.
The SOC perturbation method often diverges and gives an incorrect result. Therefore, its usage should be minimized.
(about dependency of the spin-orbit interaction ofn external magnetic field)
Your question is why the spin-orbit interaction depends on an external magnetic field and in which reference it was described for the first time.
This fact is known for a very long time and therefore it is more about the history of Science, in which I am not expert. I am sorry if I refer something incorrectly.
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(SO fact 1) The fact about the relativistic origin of the magnetic field and the existence of the spin-orbit interaction (the existence of the magnetic field of the spin-orbit interaction). This fact is one of basic facts, on which the Special Theory of Relativity was build.Therefore, I think Einstein and Lorentz knew about this fact. Myself, I have read all about this fact (all details and many nice explanations) in Landau textbook "The Classical Theory of Fields"
(SO fact 2) The fact that the strength of spin- orbit interaction (the SO magnetic field) is proportional to the strength of an externally applied magnetic field. This fact are direct consequence of the another important fact about SO:
(SO fact 3) The spin-orbit interaction cannot break the time- inverse symmetry. As a result, in order to manifest itself, the SO needs an external breaking of the time- inverse symmetry (E.g. by an orbital moment or by an external magnetic field or an electrical current etc.).
Fact 2 follows very directly from the fact 3. The strength of SO is zero , when the time inverse- symmetry is not broken (case when the orbital moment is zero, there is no external magnetic field etc.) . The SO magnetic field becomes a non-zero only when the time- inverse symmetry is broken. The strength of the SO ( the strength of the SO magnetic field) becomes larger when the degree of the breaking of the time inverse symmetry becomes larger (e.g. the orbital moment becomes larger or the external magnetic field becomes larger etc.) .
Once again
zero magnetic field -> time-inverse symmetry is not broken -> spin-orbit is zero
external magnetic field becomes larger -> degree of breaking of time-inverse symmetry becomes larger -> spin-orbit becomes larger.
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(fact 3 explanation) Why the spin-orbit interaction cannot break the time- inverse symmetry. This feature is the feature of the time-space symmetry and can be obtained from he Special Theory of Relativity (e.g. see Landau textbook " The Classical Theory of Fields " ). A simplified understanding of the fact 3 can be as follows. The spin-orbit effect is a relativistic effect and therefore can only occur when the object moves or the field, with which the object interacts, moves. The relativistic effect requires a movement. The close movement speed is to the speed of the light, the stronger any relativistic effect is. Any movement means a breaking of the time inverse symmetry. This is why the SO occurs only when the time-inverse symmetry is broken.
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Even though the direct relation between the spin- orbit interaction and the breaking of the time- inverse was understood a long time ago as well as the proportionality of the SO strength to the degree of TIS breaking (e.g, to the strength of the orbital moment or to strength of the external magnetic field), all details and specifics have not been fully understood.
For example, the SO strength depends on the orbital symmetry. Usually the orbital is more symmetric in the bulk of a material and the SO is weaker, but at an interface the orbital becomes less symmetrical and the SO becomes larger.
You can read some details here
This effect is used for molecular-recognition sensor, See here
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About experimental measurements.
The dependence of PMA and therefore SO on an external magnetic field is very strong. The experimental measurement of this dependence is rather simple and the measured data well fit to the theory. The anisotropy field is a measurable parameter, which characterizes the strength of PMA and SO.
Near for all nanomagnet, I have studied, I measure the dependence of anisotropy field on a perpendicular magnetic field. Such data contains a lot of important information.
Introductory presentation on this measurement method I gave at MMM 2020 conference. You can watch it here
(about validity of representation of electron orbital as an electron rotating around a nucleus. Electron rotation vs. the orbital spacial distribution vs. breaking time-inverse symmetry)
(Answer). In fact you can and you must. Let me explain by steps
(step 1: about probability) The electron is a wave particle. The probability describes how this wave interacts with external objects. E.g. if you put a point-like electron detector in some point of space, the probability describes efficiency of the detector to detect this electron.
Still as a wave, the electron can move, be reflected and have all properties of a wave.
A good example is a photon, which reflected back and forth between two mirrors. It consists of two opposite moving wave, but the probability does not change in time.
(step 2: about angular momentum): In general, the angular momentum (e.g. L=1) describes the degree of breaking of the time-inverse symmetry. The spin describes the internal breaking of the time-inverse symmetry and the orbital moment describes the spatial breaking of the time-inverse symmetry. Any spatial breaking of the time-inverse symmetry corresponds to some spatial rotation of the object. It is the mathematical fact. Even though the electron orbital might be complex, it can be divided into components, along which the electron rotates into clockwise or/and counterclockwise direction with respect to a fixed axis (axis of the orbital moment). Arbitrary 3D is rather complex (See animation above), but still when electron has a non-zero orbital moment, the rotation in one direction slightly larger than in the opposite direction. It is strictly determined by the degree of the breaking of the time-inverse symmetry.
(step 3: about a complex orbital): The shape of the orbital is not directly related to the breaking of the time- inverse symmetry. These are two different properties, even though they often influence each other and might to be fixed to each other by some specific interaction.
In a hydrogen atom, the orbital of a larger orbital moment have a more complex orbital, but it is not always the case. For example, in a crystal, the orbital moment of localized electrons is usually quenched. It means it is zero, even though the shape of the orbital could be very complex.
(step 4: rotation and symmetry):
Any 1D wave function can be represented as a wave moving forward, a wave moving backward or a standing wave as a sum of waves moving forward and backward.
Any 2D wave function can be represented as waves moving forward or backward or a standing wave. Additionally to that, the wavefunction can be represented as a wave rotating clockwise or a wave rotating counterclockwise or a standing wave as a sum of waves rotating rotating clockwise and counterclockwise.
Any 3D wavefunction is the same as the 2D wavefunction but the rotation is the 2D.
What I want to say that the spacial distribution and the breaking of the time- inverse symmetry are two separate properties of the wavefunction. It does not matter what is the spacial distribution of the wavefunction, the time- inversion symmetry can be either broken or not. Even though sometimes the combination of the other eigen wavefunctions is required to make a specific time- inversion symmetry breaking (e.g. for p- or d- symmetries)
(about rotation speed of electron around atom)
(Answer). It is fast enough. For example, the ratio of the velocity to the speed of light c is equal to the fine-structure constant α (α =1/137) for the first orbit of the hydrogen atom.
velectron=α · c=c/137 (q1)
c is speed of light.
In fact, Eq.(q1) is one of definitions of the fine-structure constant α (See here).
(about rotation of an electron around a nucleus)
(from Ekta Yadav) "A conduction electron rotates around each nucleus. " Can you give me some reference for this statement?
yes, the electron does rotate around a nucleus. Literally. It is not a rotation when one dot is rotating around another dot. For example, as the Earth is rotating (orbiting) around the Sun. The rotation of an electron around a nucleus is more complex, because the electron is a wave. Nevertheless, it is as a real rotation as any rotation could possibly be.
(Rotation in Quantum mechanics. Rotation & electron orbital) In order to understand it, it is better to start from a 1D structure. Let us look at a wave, which is reflected back and forward between two mirrors. This quantum state is static. It does not move in space.. The field distribution is static as well. However, there are waves, which move forward and backward. Next,Let us look at a similar 2D structure. A wave can move around a circle. In this case, the quantum state has a positive and negative orbital moment for a clockwise and counterclockwise rotation, respectively. Additionally, a quantum state may have zero orbital moment. In this case, the state consists of two waves moving or rotating in the opposite directions. This 2d case is similar to the 1D case of a wave reflecting between mirrors. In the 3D case, the electron rotation can be along any 3D vector (x,y,z). Correspondingly, the direction of the orbital moment can be along any 3D vector (x,y,z).
(Rotation & Orbital symmetry) The fact of rotation of the electron around the nucleus has an even more fundamental origin. In nature, all conserved parameters of an object have corresponding broken symmetries. The spin describes the broken time-inverse symmetry. The rotation (as well as the orbital moment) describes more complex breaking of the symmetry. The rotation means breaking of the space symmetry along with breaking of the time- inverse symmetry. The electron of an atom orbital breaks just this specific symmetry corresponding to the rotation. Meaning that, judging from the most fundamental definition of the rotation, the electron of an atomic orbital is truly rotating around the nucleus.
(Rotation & Bonding between neighbor atoms) The electron rotation or, the same, the electron having a non-zero orbital moment also means that the spatial distribution of the electron wavefunction is changing in time. When an electron state participates in a bonding between atoms, the spatial distribution of the electron wavefunction is fixed, cannot change in time and, therefore, cannot be rotated. For this reason, the electron moment is quenched meaning the orbital moment is zero and there is no electron rotation around the nucleus (See here).
Conference presentation. MMM 2022 |
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click on image to play it |
Content of this page represents my personal view and it is reflected my own finding. It may slightly different from the "classical" view on the spin-orbit interaction, which is described in following references
I will try to answer your questions as soon as possible